Probation and Justice – Historical Development in U.S. Criminal Justice Practice Exam

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• The primary focus of modern probation is which of the following?
• Under determinant sentencing, what is the primary effect on judicial discretion?
• Which term is used for a universal baseline requirement in probation?
• Which principle describes directing more supervision resources to those at highest risk?
• Which statement reflects Beccaria's influence on modern criminal justice policy?
• Which of the following best describes the 'Background' component of a PSI?
• What concept describes the tension in supervision between providing help and imposing control?
• The process of confirming PSI details by checking sources is known as what?
• What is 'authority'?
• Which reformer established the Elmira Reformatory and promoted indeterminate sentencing in the United States?
• How does the mass incarceration phenomenon relate to the 1990s and 2000s U.S. policy landscape?
• Which action describes repeating offenses after release?
• Which case extended the exclusionary rule to the states, reinforcing due process protections?
• In what year did the Supreme Court decide In re Gault, extending due process rights to juveniles?
• Which movement promoted reform of youth offenders and led to juvenile courts?
• What is one modern trend in probation organization?
• Which policy concept describes the shift toward longer sentences and harsher supervision in the 1980s-1990s?
• What best describes the role and criticisms of private prisons in the U.S. corrections system?
• Which issue arises when supervision duties of probation and parole overlap due to a merger of functions?
• What is the officer's role conflict?
• Which act funded crime control programs through federal grants and promoted the professionalization of corrections?
• What model replaced the medical model in probation thinking?
• What factors contributed to racial disparities historically in probation and sentencing?
• What is community justice focused on?
• How do offenders commonly perceive law enforcement officers?
• What is the 'child-saving movement'?
• In modern probation practice, the primary focus is which of the following?
• What is recidivism?
• What does a PSI include?
• What is the significance of the Probation Act of 1925 in the federal system?
• Which factor best describes an organization that relies on formal procedures and has limited discretion?
• John Augustus is credited with which contribution to probation?
• Which branch originally controlled probation?
• The needs assessment in probation is used to identify:
• Private PSIs are used for what purpose?
• Which statement about power is correct according to the material?
• In what year did the Supreme Court decide Miranda v. Arizona, requiring suspects to be informed of their rights?
• The creation of juvenile courts was tied to which reform movement?
• What influences probation success most?
• In the scenario where an offender misses an appointment, how should this be classified?
• Which concept reflects early appeals for leniency in sentencing?
• How did the 'War on Drugs' era influence probation and parole populations?
• The supervision principle implies supervision should focus more on which group?
• Which principle targets high-risk offenders?
• What are the two primary branches of deterrence theory in criminal justice?
• How did the Civil Rights Movement influence criminal justice reform in the 1960s-70s?
• What major contribution did John Augustus make?
• What is the outcome when probation ends due to rule violations?
• Which outcome indicates a program is not successful in reducing reoffending?
• When does supervision begin?
• Which condition includes fines?
• Where and when was the first juvenile court established in the United States?
• Which publication popularized the phrase 'mass incarceration' in public discourse?
• In what year did the Supreme Court decide Gideon v. Wainwright, guaranteeing the right to counsel for indigent defendants?
• What issue arises when probation is merged with parole?
• The shift to reintegration as a probation model signals which change?
• If misbehavior leads to ending probation, this is known as?
• Which term describes the type of recidivism when an offender commits a new offense after supervision begins?
• Which era is associated with the due process revolution in probation and parole, including cases like Gideon v. Wainwright and Miranda v. Arizona?
• Which authority is based on mutual agreement?
• What is 'power'?
• What is risk management?
• If an officer uses threats, what type of authority does this illustrate?
• Which statement describes the difference between determinative and indeterminate sentencing?
• Which statement best describes mass incarceration in the United States?
• What policing system in colonial America organized watchmen and constables as a precursory framework to modern policing?
• What is a benefit of decentralized systems?
• Investigation involves which activity?
• What is the significance of the 1899 Chicago Juvenile Court?
• What must PSI avoid?
• Why is recidivism important?
• Which term describes the approach of using research and evaluation to select probation interventions with proven effectiveness?
• As probation expanded west, it shifted to which branch?
• What ensures PSI accuracy?
• In what year did John Augustus begin his probation work?
• The Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 expanded federal crime control in what major ways?
• What is risk-need-responsivity (RNR) in modern probation practice?
• Which role involves assisting an offender with housing needs?
• If probation performs only Investigation, which function is missing?
• Which term best describes the long-term drivers of mass incarceration, such as mandatory minimums and determinate sentencing?
• Which policy factors contributed to mass incarceration according to the material?
• Which concept focuses on reducing the likelihood of reoffending in probation practice?
• If an offender completes probation early, what is the outcome?
• Non-criminal probation violations such as failing to report are called?
• Who authored the critique 'What Works?' in corrections and what was its main conclusion?
• What is evidence-based practice?
• Probation revocation is defined as what?
• The content that reflects the effect on others in a PSI is called what?
• In the Risk-Need-Responsivity framework, which option is NOT a core component?
• What did the first formal juvenile court signal in terms of treatment philosophy?
• In the PSI context, the officer's role conflict is best described as a clash between which two parties?
• Which 1963 case guaranteed the right to counsel for indigent defendants nationwide?
• Cross-checking PSI information demonstrates which principle?
• Which statement best describes probation's general effectiveness?
• Which reform era promoted separate treatment for youths focusing on rehabilitation within a distinct system?
• What is case planning?
• What describes a victim impact statement?
• Who is considered the first probation officer in the United States?
• In what year and by what act was the Federal Bureau of Prisons established?
• What are private PSIs used for?
• The PSI is used to inform which decision at sentencing?
• What contributed to the expansion of juvenile facilities in the early 20th century?
• If a PSI contains losses for a victim, which section does this reflect?
• What doctrine underpins the establishment of juvenile courts and holds that the state acts as guardian for children?
• Which 1984 act restructured federal crime control, expanded penalties, and included asset forfeiture provisions?
• What is the correct distinction between probation violation and parole violation?
• Who is widely credited with founding probation in the United States?
• What is the term for finishing probation before the scheduled term ends?
• Which reformer is associated with professionalizing policing in the United States (advancing training, standards, and the use of technology)?
• Which event commonly triggers revocation?
• What is performance-based supervision?
• In the scenario where an officer helps an offender find housing, what role does this illustrate?
• Which term describes removing sensitive information from a PSI?
• What is a benefit of centralized systems?
• Mass incarceration is associated with which phenomenon, and who popularized the term in public discourse?
• What is evidence-based practice in probation?
• Which result describes a program that reduces reoffending by applying evidence-based practices?
• The Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968 primarily established what for law enforcement and corrections?
• Which type of authority is demonstrated when an officer sets goals with an offender to guide behavior?
• Which condition applies to all probationers?
• What is 'cleansing' in PSI?
• What is the Beccaria influence on modern criminal justice policy?
• Which option is an example of the goal of treating drug-related issues in probation?
• What is the role of the U.S. Sentencing Commission?
• Which term describes the tendency to commit additional offenses after prior convictions?
• Which act expanded funding for prisons and law enforcement and supported crime-prevention programs?
• Which act enacted significant mandatory minimum penalties for drug offenses in 1986?
• How did the 1960s-70s expansion of due process rights affect probation practice?
• What is workload accounting?
• What is electronic monitoring in community corrections?
• Which description best defines intermediate sanctions in probation and community corrections?
• What was the main conclusion of Robert Martinson's 'What Works?' critique?
• What is the difference between determinative and indeterminate sentencing?
• Which 1966 case requires police to inform suspects of their rights and provide counsel?
• Which practice involves evaluating risk and needs to guide supervision?
• What is the purpose of the Parens patriae doctrine in juvenile justice policy?
• In system design, centralization is associated with:
• Which term best describes the process of setting concrete, timed objectives for offenders?
• Which authority is based on competence?
• The PSI disclosure concerns were raised by which case?
• The concept that balances supervision with treatment and support is aligned with which approach?
• The early practice that allowed clergy to avoid harsher punishment is known as which concept?
• Which term describes the process of using research to inform probation policy and practice?
• What is a key issue with PSI recommendations?
• Which case raised PSI disclosure concerns?
• Which factor describes an agency that follows strict rules and limits flexibility, making it less adaptive to individual cases?
• What is the primary purpose of parole in the U.S. correctional system?
• Which approach describes probation practice that relies on research findings to guide decisions and interventions?
• What was Dorothea Dix's contribution to 19th-century prison and mental health reform?
• What is the main purpose of a PSI?
• What is the purpose of determinant sentencing?
• What is mass incarceration, and what policy shifts contributed to it since the 1980s?
• What was the purpose of the 1967 President's Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administration of Justice?
• Which act included asset forfeiture provisions and expanded penalties in 1984?
• When a program targets high-risk offenders, which principle is demonstrated?
• Within the Risk-Need-Responsivity framework, which element specifically focuses on tailoring interventions to an offender's learning style and abilities?
• What was the purpose of judicial reprieve?
• In what year did the Supreme Court decide Mapp v. Ohio, extending the exclusionary rule to the states?
• What problem leads to specialization?
• Which is NOT recidivism?
• What does the Prison Litigation Reform Act (PLRA) of 1996 do?
• In probation terminology, a technical violation is best described as?
• Which term best describes directing offenders to treatment options within probation supervision?
• Historically, the action of promising to perform a specified act or paying money to secure release is called what?
• An example of a technical violation would be which action?
• What does urinalysis detect?
• What is the aim of the federal sentencing guidelines in terms of sentencing outcomes?
• Which 1984 law created the U.S. Sentencing Commission and promoted determinate sentencing?
• What are contact standards?
• Which statement correctly describes the aims of the two branches of deterrence theory?
• Which 1967 case extended due process rights to juveniles in delinquency proceedings?
• What is 'community justice'?
• During which era did major American cities begin establishing professional police departments and modern crime control policies?
• Which description best captures the use of data and research to guide probation policy and practice?
• What is social casework?
• Which principle is demonstrated when an officer refers an offender to treatment as part of supervision?
• Which concept captures the tension between assisting offenders and monitoring their compliance, as reflected in supervision roles?
• What is the purpose of pretrial services, and when were federal pretrial services formalized?
• Which description captures the success of an evidence-based probation program in reducing reoffending?
• Which devices are commonly used in electronic monitoring to track offenders?
• What do needs assessments evaluate?
• Which condition targets substance abuse?
• Which practice required offenders to promise to perform an act or forfeit money?
• Which option describes grouping offenders by similar characteristics to guide supervision?
• Case management in probation is based on which assessment?
• What are two core theoretical rationales used to justify probation and community-based corrections?
• The concept of leniency in early sentencing is most closely associated with which term?
• Which principle is highlighted by programs that focus on higher risk individuals?
• Why use specialized caseloads?
• Which model dominated probation thinking until the 1960s?
• In probation practice, if an offender is re-arrested for another offense, what type of recidivism is this?
• What is a common way probation ends unsuccessfully?
• A key advantage of decentralized probation systems is: